Big picture
India is a land of many regions, each with its own language, culture and history. Regional aspirations, demands for greater autonomy, recognition or even separation, have been a constant feature of Indian politics. Some were resolved through negotiation; others led to violence.
Indian democracy has generally tried to accommodate regional aspirations rather than suppress them. This chapter examines the major cases and what they teach us.
Learning goals
Explain India's approach to regional diversity.
Explain the issues in Jammu and Kashmir.
Explain the Punjab crisis of the 1980s and its resolution.
Explain demands for autonomy, secessionist movements and movements against outsiders in the north-east.
Explain the Dravidian movement.
Explain the lessons of regional aspirations for Indian democracy.
Core ideas
1. Region and nation
After independence, India had to balance national unity with regional diversity. Unlike some countries that saw diversity as a threat, India's democratic approach treated regional aspirations as legitimate, to be accommodated through dialogue, negotiation and constitutional arrangements (such as federalism and linguistic states).
Regional aspirations take several forms: demands for autonomy within India, demands for separate states, and in some cases secession (separation from India).
2. Jammu and Kashmir
Background:
Before 1947, Jammu and Kashmir was a princely state ruled by Maharaja Hari Singh, who wanted to remain independent. The popular movement against him was led by Sheikh Abdullah of the National Conference, who opposed both the Maharaja and joining Pakistan.
In October 1947, Pakistan sent tribal infiltrators to capture Kashmir. The Maharaja asked India for help and signed the Instrument of Accession. India sent troops, and a ceasefire followed under UN supervision, leaving part of the state under Pakistan's control (called Pakistan-occupied Kashmir by India).
Sheikh Abdullah became the head of government in Jammu and Kashmir.
Special status:
Article 370 gave Jammu and Kashmir special status, with its own constitution and greater autonomy than other states.
In August 2019, Parliament revoked the special status under Article 370 and reorganised the state into two Union Territories: Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh.
Three dimensions of the conflict:
External dispute: Pakistan claims the region.
Internal disputes over the status of Kashmir within India, and between the regions of the state (Kashmir valley, Jammu and Ladakh), which have different aspirations.
Militancy: from 1989, insurgency and militant violence, supported from across the border, caused great loss of life; there were also separatist demands and allegations of human rights violations.
Developments: the dismissal and arrest of Sheikh Abdullah (1953), his return and the accord with Indira Gandhi (1974), and later elections, some disputed (1987). Elections in 2002 were widely seen as fair. The politics of the region continues to involve questions of autonomy, development and security.
3. Punjab
The Akali Dal, formed in 1920 as the political wing of the Sikhs, led the movement for the formation of a Punjabi-speaking state ("Punjabi Suba"); Punjab was reorganised in 1966, with Haryana and Himachal Pradesh carved out.
In 1973, the Akali Dal passed the Anandpur Sahib Resolution, demanding regional autonomy and federalism, and asserting Sikh identity. It also raised issues such as the sharing of river waters with neighbouring states.
In the 1980s, the movement was taken over by militant extremists who demanded a separate Sikh state, "Khalistan". Militants made the Golden Temple in Amritsar their headquarters.
In June 1984, the government launched Operation Blue Star to flush out militants from the Golden Temple. The operation damaged the shrine and hurt Sikh sentiments.
On 31 October 1984, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi was assassinated by her Sikh bodyguards. This was followed by anti-Sikh violence in Delhi and elsewhere, in which thousands of Sikhs were killed.
In July 1985, Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi and Akali leader Harchand Singh Longowal signed the Rajiv Gandhi–Longowal Accord (Punjab Accord), agreeing to transfer Chandigarh to Punjab, set up a commission on the Punjab–Haryana border, a tribunal on river waters, compensation for victims of violence, and withdrawal of special powers.
Militancy continued for some years; peace returned by the mid-1990s, and elections were held in 1992.
4. The north-east
The north-east, made up of seven states (the "seven sisters", later joined by Sikkim), is linked to the rest of India by a narrow corridor and shares borders with several countries. Its issues fall into three types:
(a) Demands for autonomy:
At independence, the region (except Manipur and Tripura) formed one state, Assam. Non-Assamese groups resented the imposition of Assamese language and culture, and demanded separate states.
Meghalaya, Manipur and Tripura became states in 1972, and Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh in 1987. Others, such as the Bodos and Karbis, demanded autonomy and were given autonomous councils.
(b) Secessionist movements:
Mizoram: after a famine in 1959 that the Mizos felt the Assam government neglected, the Mizo National Front (MNF), led by Laldenga, launched an armed struggle for independence from 1966. After two decades, Laldenga signed a Peace Accord with Rajiv Gandhi in 1986; Mizoram became a state, and Laldenga became Chief Minister. Mizoram has since been peaceful.
Nagaland: the Naga National Council, led by Angami Zapu Phizo, declared independence in 1951; a section later signed an agreement with the government, but others continued armed struggle. Talks with Naga groups (such as the NSCN) have continued.
(c) Movements against outsiders:
The Assam movement (1979–85): led by the All Assam Students' Union (AASU), it opposed illegal migrants, especially from Bangladesh, fearing that they would reduce the Assamese to a minority. It also argued that Assam's resources (oil, tea) were used without benefiting the local people.
The movement ended with the Assam Accord (1985) between Rajiv Gandhi and AASU leaders, agreeing to detect and deport illegal migrants. The Asom Gana Parishad (AGP) won the 1985 elections. The issue of migrants remains politically important.
5. The Dravidian movement
The Dravidian movement in Tamil Nadu, led by E.V. Ramasami "Periyar", opposed Brahmin dominance and the dominance of the north and Hindi.
It initially included demands for a separate Dravidian nation, but later turned to democratic politics. Its political successors, the DMK (founded 1949) and later the AIADMK, came to dominate Tamil politics. The anti-Hindi agitation of 1965 forced the government to continue English as an official language alongside Hindi.
The movement shows how regional assertion can be channelled into democratic politics.
6. Lessons
Regional aspirations are a part of democratic politics; expressing them isn't abnormal or anti-national.
Accommodation through democratic negotiation works better than suppression. Accords in Punjab, Mizoram and Assam show this.
Power sharing: regions must have a share in decisions affecting them; a strong centre should respect regional voices.
Regional imbalances in development cause resentment and must be addressed.
Flexibility in the Constitution, such as special provisions for some states and autonomous councils, helps accommodate diversity.
A reliable approach to questions
For Kashmir, explain accession, special status and its abrogation, and the three dimensions of the conflict.
For Punjab, give the Anandpur Sahib Resolution, Operation Blue Star, the assassination and the 1985 Accord.
For the north-east, classify issues as autonomy, secession or movements against outsiders, with examples and accords.
For lessons, explain accommodation and power sharing.
Connections that matter
Challenges of nation building describes the integration of states and linguistic reorganisation.
Recent developments in Indian politics discusses the rise of regional parties in coalition politics.
Class 11 Political Science: federalism explains special provisions for states.
Common mistakes
Dating the Anandpur Sahib Resolution to 1984. It was passed in 1973; Operation Blue Star was in 1984.
Saying Mizoram's conflict still continues. The 1986 Accord brought lasting peace.
Saying the Assam movement demanded secession. It opposed illegal migrants and demanded their deportation.
Saying Article 370 is still in force. It was revoked in 2019.
Revision checklist
I can explain India's approach to regional aspirations.
I can explain Jammu and Kashmir's history and issues.
I can explain the Punjab crisis and accord.
I can explain north-east movements and accords.
I can explain the Dravidian movement and the lessons for democracy.