Big picture
From the late 1980s, Indian politics changed dramatically. The Congress lost its dominance, and the country entered an era of coalition governments. New social groups, especially Other Backward Classes (OBCs) and Dalits, asserted themselves politically; issues of religious identity and secularism came to the centre; and economic reforms transformed the economy.
This chapter examines these developments, from 1989 to the present, and the broad consensus that emerged despite intense competition.
Learning goals
Explain the context of Indian politics in the 1990s.
Explain the era of coalitions and the major governments.
Explain the return of single-party majorities after 2014.
Explain the political rise of OBCs and the Mandal Commission.
Explain Dalit politics and the rise of the Bahujan Samaj Party.
Explain the debates on communalism, secularism and democracy.
Explain the emerging consensus among political parties.
Core ideas
1. The context of the 1990s
Five developments shaped politics from the late 1980s:
The end of Congress dominance: after its defeat in the 1989 elections, the Congress was no longer the dominant party, and coalition politics began.
The Mandal issue: in 1990, the government decided to implement the Mandal Commission recommendations on reservations for OBCs, leading to intense protests and the rise of OBC politics.
New economic policy: from 1991, governments followed structural adjustment and economic liberalisation, which all major parties eventually accepted.
The Ayodhya dispute: the movement for a Ram temple at Ayodhya led to the demolition of the Babri Masjid on 6 December 1992, followed by communal violence. This raised questions about secularism and the role of religion in politics.
The assassination of Rajiv Gandhi in May 1991 during the election campaign, which shaped the outcome of that election.
2. The era of coalitions
Year | Government | Prime Minister | Features |
|---|---|---|---|
1989 | National Front | V.P. Singh (then Chandra Shekhar) | Supported from outside by the BJP and the Left Front |
1991 | Congress minority government | P.V. Narasimha Rao | Began economic reforms |
1996 | United Front | H.D. Deve Gowda, then I.K. Gujral | Supported by the Congress from outside |
1998, 1999 | National Democratic Alliance (NDA) led by the BJP | Atal Bihari Vajpayee | A coalition of many parties |
2004, 2009 | United Progressive Alliance (UPA) led by the Congress | Manmohan Singh | Supported initially by the Left from outside |
Features of coalition politics: no single party won a majority; regional parties became crucial partners at the centre; parties with different ideologies cooperated; and governments had to bargain and compromise, sometimes leading to instability.
Rise of the BJP: the BJP grew from 2 seats in 1984 to become a major party by the 1990s, leading the NDA.
3. Return of majority governments
In 2014, the BJP won a majority on its own (282 seats), the first time since 1984 that a single party had won a Lok Sabha majority. Narendra Modi became Prime Minister, heading the NDA government.
In 2019, the BJP increased its majority (303 seats).
In 2024, the BJP won the most seats but fell short of a majority on its own; the NDA formed the government with its allies, and Narendra Modi began a third term. Coalition partners again became important.
4. The political rise of OBCs
Other Backward Classes (OBCs) are communities that are socially and educationally backward, other than SCs and STs.
The Mandal Commission (Second Backward Classes Commission) was appointed in 1978 under B.P. Mandal and submitted its report in 1980. It recommended 27% reservation for OBCs in government jobs and educational institutions, along with land reforms and other measures.
In August 1990, the V.P. Singh government announced the implementation of reservation in central government jobs. This led to violent protests in many parts of north India, especially by upper-caste students.
The decision was challenged in court. In the Indra Sawhney case (1992), the Supreme Court upheld the reservation, with some conditions (such as excluding the "creamy layer" and capping total reservations at 50%).
Political impact: OBCs became a powerful political force, and many parties with OBC support, especially in north India (such as the Samajwadi Party and Rashtriya Janata Dal), gained strength.
5. Dalit politics and the BSP
Dalit organisations grew as Dalits sought dignity, representation and power.
BAMCEF (Backward and Minority Classes Employees Federation) was formed in 1978 by Kanshi Ram, organising government employees from these communities.
The Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) was founded in 1984 by Kanshi Ram, aiming to mobilise the "bahujan" (the majority: SCs, STs, OBCs and religious minorities) to win political power. It achieved its greatest success in Uttar Pradesh, where Mayawati became Chief Minister several times, including with a majority in 2007.
6. Communalism, secularism and democracy
Shah Bano case (1985): the Supreme Court granted maintenance to a divorced Muslim woman, Shah Bano. Some Muslim leaders saw it as interference in personal law, and the government passed the Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act (1986), which critics saw as appeasement.
Ayodhya: a movement led by the BJP and organisations like the Vishva Hindu Parishad demanded a Ram temple at the site of the Babri Masjid in Ayodhya. The mosque was demolished on 6 December 1992, followed by communal violence and the dismissal of several BJP state governments. In 2019, the Supreme Court awarded the disputed site for a temple and directed land to be given for a mosque elsewhere.
Gujarat riots (2002): after a train coach carrying pilgrims was set on fire at Godhra in February 2002, large-scale violence against Muslims followed in Gujarat. The National Human Rights Commission criticised the state government's handling.
These events raised serious questions about the use of religion in politics, the protection of minorities and the meaning of secularism.
7. The emerging consensus
Despite intense competition, a broad agreement emerged among most parties on several issues:
Agreement on new economic policies: most parties support liberalisation and growth-oriented policies, while differing on details.
Acceptance of the political and social claims of backward castes: all parties accept reservations and the need for representation of OBCs.
Acceptance of the role of state-level parties in national governance: the line between regional and national parties has blurred.
Emphasis on pragmatic considerations rather than ideology: alliances are formed on practical grounds of power-sharing.
A reliable approach to questions
List the five developments that shaped the 1990s.
Match each coalition government to its year and Prime Minister.
For Mandal, give the dates (1978, 1980, 1990, 1992) and the political impact.
For Dalit politics, explain BAMCEF and the BSP, Kanshi Ram and Mayawati.
For communalism, explain the Shah Bano case, Ayodhya and Gujarat 2002.
List the four points of emerging consensus.
Connections that matter
The crisis of democratic order explains the Janata government, an earlier non-Congress coalition.
Regional aspirations explains the rise of regional parties.
Class 11 Political Science: elections and representation explains reservations and electoral politics.
Common mistakes
Saying the Mandal Commission was appointed in 1990. It was appointed in 1978, reported in 1980, and its implementation was announced in 1990.
Saying the BJP won a majority on its own in 1998. It led the NDA coalition; its first single-party majority came in 2014.
Mixing up Kanshi Ram (founder of the BSP) and Mayawati (Chief Minister of UP).
Saying the coalition era ended all regional parties' influence.
Revision checklist
I can explain the context of the 1990s.
I can describe coalition governments and the return of majorities.
I can explain the Mandal Commission and OBC politics.
I can explain Dalit politics and the BSP.
I can explain debates on communalism and secularism.
I can explain the emerging consensus.