Big picture
No country can solve problems like war, pandemics, climate change or financial crises alone. International organisations provide a forum where countries can cooperate, negotiate and settle disputes. The most important is the United Nations (UN), founded after World War II to save future generations from the scourge of war.
This chapter explains the UN's structure, the debate about reforming it (especially the Security Council), India's claim to a permanent seat, and other key organisations in the economic, nuclear and human rights fields.
Learning goals
Explain why international organisations are needed.
Describe the founding, aims and organs of the UN.
Explain the composition of the Security Council and the veto power.
Explain the debates on UN reform and India's claim to permanent membership.
Explain the UN's role in a unipolar world.
Describe the IMF, World Bank, WTO and IAEA.
Describe the role of NGOs such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch.
Core ideas
1. Why international organisations?
They help countries cooperate on issues such as peace, development, health and environment, and avoid war.
They provide information and ideas, and a forum where even small countries have a voice.
They help settle disputes peacefully and address problems that cross borders.
2. The United Nations
The Atlantic Charter (1941), signed by Roosevelt and Churchill, laid the foundation. The UN Charter was signed at the San Francisco Conference in June 1945 by 51 countries, and the UN came into being on 24 October 1945 (celebrated as UN Day).
Today the UN has 193 member states.
Aim: to prevent international conflict and facilitate cooperation among states, to promote social and economic development, human rights and international law.
Principal organs:
Organ | Role |
|---|---|
General Assembly | All members, each with one vote; discusses world issues and passes resolutions |
Security Council | Responsible for maintaining international peace and security; can authorise sanctions and peacekeeping |
Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) | Coordinates economic and social work |
International Court of Justice | Settles legal disputes between states (at The Hague) |
Secretariat | Administers the UN, headed by the Secretary-General |
Trusteeship Council | Supervised trust territories; suspended in 1994 as all became independent |
The Secretary-General is the UN's chief administrator and representative. António Guterres (Portugal) has held the post since 2017.
Specialised agencies and programmes: the World Health Organization (WHO), UNESCO (education, science and culture), UNICEF (children), ILO (labour), UNDP (development), UNHCR (refugees) and the UN Human Rights Council, among others.
3. The Security Council and the veto
It has 15 members: 5 permanent members (USA, UK, France, Russia and China) and 10 non-permanent members elected by the General Assembly for two-year terms.
Permanent members have the veto power: a negative vote by any one of them blocks a decision, even if all others support it.
Criticism of the veto: it is undemocratic and reflects the power structure of 1945; permanent members use it to protect their own interests and allies.
Defence of the veto: it ensures that major powers, whose cooperation is needed for enforcement, remain within the UN, and prevents decisions that great powers would ignore.
4. Reform of the UN
Since the Cold War ended, there have been demands to reform the UN to reflect today's world:
Structures and processes: the Security Council no longer represents contemporary realities; many developing countries and regions (Africa, Latin America) are underrepresented; there are demands to increase membership and make it more democratic.
Issues for the UN's jurisdiction: focusing more on peace and security, development, human rights, terrorism and climate change.
Criteria suggested for new permanent members: a major economic power, a major military power, a substantial contributor to the UN budget, a large population, a democracy that respects human rights, and representation of geographic and cultural diversity.
India's claim to a permanent seat:
India is the world's most populous country and largest democracy.
It has one of the world's largest economies.
It has participated in almost all UN initiatives and is one of the largest contributors of troops to UN peacekeeping missions.
It represents developing countries and has played a leading role in the Non-Aligned Movement.
Objections: some countries question India's nuclear weapons, its relations with Pakistan, or argue that adding new veto-wielding members would make the Council less effective. Regional rivals of other aspirants also resist.
5. The UN in a unipolar world
After the Cold War, the UN sometimes struggled to restrain the USA, the sole superpower, which could act without UN approval (for example, the 2003 invasion of Iraq). The US is also the largest financial contributor to the UN, which gives it influence.
Still, the UN remains the only global forum where all countries can debate and cooperate; it confers legitimacy on international action and helps coordinate responses to global problems.
6. Other international organisations
Organisation | Founded | Role |
|---|---|---|
International Monetary Fund (IMF) | 1945 (Bretton Woods agreements, 1944) | Oversees international financial institutions and regulates the international monetary system; gives loans to countries in financial crisis. Voting is weighted by contribution, so the G7 countries have a large share of votes |
World Bank | 1945 (from the 1944 Bretton Woods conference) | Gives loans and grants for development: human development (education, health), agriculture and rural development, environmental protection, infrastructure and governance. Criticised for setting conditions on borrowing countries |
World Trade Organization (WTO) | 1995 (successor to GATT, 1947) | Sets rules for global trade; decisions by consensus, though major economic powers have the most influence |
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) | 1957 | Promotes the peaceful use of nuclear energy and prevents its use for military purposes; inspects nuclear facilities |
7. Non-governmental organisations
Amnesty International is an NGO that campaigns for the protection of human rights worldwide, prepares and publishes reports on human rights violations, and mobilises public opinion. Governments sometimes resent its reports.
Human Rights Watch is another international NGO that researches and advocates on human rights; it draws media attention to abuses and has helped build coalitions, such as the campaign to ban landmines.
A reliable approach to questions
For the UN, give the founding date, Charter, member count and six organs.
For the Security Council, give its composition, the veto, and arguments for and against the veto.
For reform, give the issues, criteria for new members and India's case.
For other organisations, match each to its founding date and role.
Connections that matter
The end of bipolarity explains the unipolar world in which the UN operates.
Globalisation explains the role of the IMF, World Bank and WTO.
Security in the contemporary world explains global security issues the UN deals with.
Common mistakes
Saying the Security Council has 10 permanent members. It has 5 permanent and 10 non-permanent members.
Saying the WTO was founded in 1945. It was founded in 1995, succeeding GATT.
Calling Amnesty International a UN agency. It is an NGO.
Saying India already has a veto.
Revision checklist
I can explain the founding and organs of the UN.
I can explain the Security Council and veto, with arguments.
I can explain UN reform and India's claim.
I can describe the IMF, World Bank, WTO and IAEA.
I can describe the role of human rights NGOs.