Big picture
India became independent just as the Cold War began, dividing the world into two blocs led by the USA and the USSR. Rather than join either bloc, India chose non-alignment: an independent foreign policy that kept it free to judge each issue on its merits.
India's foreign policy also had to deal with conflicts with its neighbours, China and Pakistan, and with questions about nuclear weapons. This chapter traces these choices and their consequences.
Learning goals
Explain the international context of India's foreign policy.
Explain non-alignment and Nehru's role.
Explain the Bandung Conference and the Non-Aligned Movement.
Explain Panchsheel, relations with China and the 1962 war.
Explain wars with Pakistan and the Tashkent and Simla agreements.
Explain the Indo-Soviet treaty and the 1971 war.
Explain India's nuclear policy.
Core ideas
1. The international context
At independence, India faced the challenges of poverty, development and partition, along with a world divided by the Cold War.
Article 51 of the Constitution (a Directive Principle) asks the state to promote international peace and security, maintain just and honourable relations among nations, foster respect for international law, and encourage settlement of disputes by arbitration.
Jawaharlal Nehru, as Prime Minister and Foreign Minister, shaped foreign policy, with three main objectives: preserving India's hard-won sovereignty, protecting its territorial integrity, and promoting rapid economic development.
2. Non-alignment
Non-alignment meant not joining either military bloc (NATO led by the USA, or the Warsaw Pact led by the USSR).
It did not mean neutrality or isolation: India took an active part in world affairs, judged issues independently, and worked to reduce Cold War tensions.
India's independent stance sometimes annoyed both blocs: the USA was unhappy with India's closeness to the USSR at times, while the USSR was suspicious of India's ties with the West.
Benefits: India could receive aid and support from both blocs, and could pursue its national interests freely.
3. Afro-Asian unity and the Non-Aligned Movement
India supported decolonisation and the freedom struggles of colonised countries in Asia and Africa. It hosted the Asian Relations Conference in March 1947.
The Bandung Conference (1955, Indonesia), an Afro-Asian conference, was a milestone in building ties among newly independent nations.
The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) was founded at the first summit in Belgrade in September 1961. Its founders included Nehru (India), Josip Broz Tito (Yugoslavia), Gamal Abdel Nasser (Egypt), Sukarno (Indonesia) and Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana).
4. Panchsheel and China
India was among the first countries to recognise the People's Republic of China (1949), and relations were warm ("Hindi-Chini bhai-bhai").
Panchsheel, the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, was signed by Nehru and Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai on 29 April 1954:
mutual respect for each other's territorial integrity and sovereignty;
mutual non-aggression;
mutual non-interference in each other's internal affairs;
equality and mutual benefit;
peaceful coexistence.
5. The 1962 war with China
Tibet: China took control of Tibet in 1950. In 1959, after an uprising in Tibet was crushed, the Dalai Lama fled to India and was given asylum, which China resented.
Border disputes: China claimed Aksai Chin in Ladakh and much of present-day Arunachal Pradesh (then the North-East Frontier Agency, NEFA).
In October 1962, China launched a swift offensive on both fronts. Indian forces were poorly prepared, and China advanced deep into Indian territory before declaring a ceasefire.
Consequences:
India's image and self-confidence suffered; Nehru was criticised, and Defence Minister V.K. Krishna Menon resigned.
India modernised its military, increasing defence spending.
The Communist Party of India split in 1964, partly over attitudes to China, forming the CPI and the CPI (Marxist).
The war highlighted the need for better attention to the north-east, whose integration and development became a priority.
Relations improved only slowly, with ambassador-level ties restored in 1976 and a visit by Rajiv Gandhi in 1988.
6. Wars with Pakistan
1947–48 (Kashmir): Pakistan-backed tribal raiders invaded Kashmir; the Maharaja signed the Instrument of Accession with India. The war ended with a ceasefire under UN supervision, leaving part of Kashmir under Pakistani control.
1965 war: Pakistan launched armed attacks in the Rann of Kutch and then in Jammu and Kashmir. Under Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri, India responded strongly, advancing towards Lahore. The war ended with the Tashkent Agreement (January 1966), signed by Shastri and Pakistan's General Ayub Khan, with the mediation of the Soviet Union. Shastri died in Tashkent soon after signing it.
1971 war:
A crisis arose in East Pakistan, where the Pakistani army cracked down on the Bengali people after the Awami League under Sheikh Mujibur Rahman won the 1970 elections. About 80 lakh refugees fled to India.
In August 1971, India signed a 20-year Treaty of Peace and Friendship with the Soviet Union, which assured India of support in case of attack.
After Pakistan attacked Indian airbases in December 1971, India launched a full-scale war. Within ten days, the Indian army, with the Bengali resistance, surrounded Dhaka; about 90,000 Pakistani troops surrendered, and Bangladesh became independent.
The Simla Agreement was signed in July 1972 by Indira Gandhi and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, committing both countries to settle disputes bilaterally and peacefully.
Kargil (1999): Pakistani forces occupied positions on the Indian side of the Line of Control in the Kargil sector. India launched Operation Vijay and recaptured the territory.
7. India's nuclear policy
Nehru supported science and nuclear energy for peaceful purposes and opposed nuclear weapons, calling for comprehensive disarmament.
1974: India conducted its first nuclear test at Pokhran, describing it as a peaceful nuclear explosion.
India has refused to sign the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT, 1968) and the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT), calling them discriminatory, since they allow only a few countries to keep nuclear weapons.
1998: India conducted nuclear tests at Pokhran, declaring itself a nuclear weapon state; Pakistan followed soon after.
India's doctrine is based on "no first use" and a credible minimum deterrence, while remaining committed to global, verifiable and non-discriminatory nuclear disarmament.
8. Continuity and change
The foundations of non-alignment and independent foreign policy have continued, but policy has adapted to changing circumstances, especially after the Cold War.
After 1991, India improved relations with the USA, pursued the Look East / Act East policy, and strengthened ties with neighbours and major powers, guided by its economic and security interests.
A reliable approach to questions
Explain non-alignment as an independent policy, not neutrality.
For NAM, give the Bandung Conference (1955), Belgrade summit (1961) and founders.
For China, give Panchsheel (1954), Tibet, the border disputes and the 1962 war's consequences.
For Pakistan, match each war with its year, leaders and agreement (Tashkent 1966, Simla 1972).
For nuclear policy, explain 1974, 1998, the stand on NPT and CTBT, and no first use.
Connections that matter
The end of bipolarity explains the Cold War context.
Contemporary South Asia discusses India's neighbourhood in more detail.
Security in the contemporary world covers arms control and India's security strategy.
Common mistakes
Equating non-alignment with neutrality.
Mixing up Tashkent (1966, after the 1965 war) and Simla (1972, after the 1971 war).
Dating Panchsheel to 1962. It was signed in 1954; the war was in 1962.
Saying India's 1974 test was declared a weapons test. It was described as a peaceful nuclear explosion.
Revision checklist
I can explain the context and objectives of India's foreign policy.
I can explain non-alignment, Bandung and NAM.
I can explain Panchsheel and the 1962 war.
I can explain the wars with Pakistan and the related agreements.
I can explain India's nuclear policy.