Big picture
Environmental problems such as climate change, ozone depletion and the loss of forests cross national borders. They have become central to world politics, raising difficult questions: who caused the damage, who should pay to fix it, and how should limited natural resources be shared?
Developed and developing countries often disagree. This chapter explains the major international agreements, the key principles, India's position, conflicts over resources like oil and water, and the rights of indigenous peoples.
Learning goals
Explain why environmental issues have become part of global politics.
Explain the Earth Summit and the idea of sustainable development.
Explain the global commons and agreements to protect them.
Explain the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities.
Explain the UNFCCC, the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement.
Explain India's stand on environmental issues.
Explain the geopolitics of resources and the rights of indigenous peoples.
Core ideas
1. Environmental concerns in global politics
Cultivable land is barely expanding, and much of it is losing fertility; grasslands have been overgrazed; fisheries are over-harvested.
Water bodies are polluted, and safe drinking water is scarce for many people.
Natural forests, which stabilise climate and support biodiversity, are being lost.
The ozone layer has thinned, exposing living beings to harmful ultraviolet radiation.
Coastal pollution is increasing.
The Club of Rome published Limits to Growth (1972), warning that resources would be depleted by growing population. The UN Environment Programme (UNEP) held conferences that drew attention to environmental issues.
2. The Earth Summit and sustainable development
The UN Conference on Environment and Development, the Earth Summit, was held in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992.
It produced conventions on climate change, biodiversity and forestry, and a list of development practices called Agenda 21.
Divisions: rich countries of the Global North focused on ozone depletion and global warming; poor countries of the Global South wanted to link environment with economic development and stressed that their development needs mattered.
The summit accepted the idea of sustainable development: development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the needs of future generations (as defined in the Brundtland Report, Our Common Future, 1987).
3. The global commons
Global commons are areas or regions of the world located outside the sovereign jurisdiction of any one state, requiring common governance by the international community: the Earth's atmosphere, Antarctica, the ocean floor and outer space.
Agreements:
Agreement | Year | Aim |
|---|---|---|
Antarctic Treaty | 1959 | Reserves Antarctica for peaceful and scientific use |
Montreal Protocol | 1987 | Phases out ozone-depleting substances (such as CFCs) |
Antarctic Environmental Protocol | 1991 | Protects Antarctica's environment |
Challenges: managing the commons is difficult because of unequal technological capacities (for example, in deep-sea mining or space), and the benefits often go to technologically advanced countries.
4. Common but differentiated responsibilities
Developed countries argued that everyone should share responsibility equally for protecting the environment. Developing countries argued that developed countries caused most of the ecological damage through industrialisation, so they should bear more responsibility; developing countries were still developing and needed space to grow.
The Rio Declaration (Principle 7) accepted the idea of "common but differentiated responsibilities": all states share responsibility for the environment, but developed countries bear a greater share because of their greater historical contribution to pollution and their greater technological and financial resources.
5. Climate change agreements
UNFCCC (UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, 1992): agreed at Rio; states that parties should act to protect the climate system "on the basis of equity and in accordance with their common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities". It recognises that the largest share of historical and current emissions came from developed countries, and that per capita emissions in developing countries are still low.
Kyoto Protocol (1997): agreed in Kyoto, Japan, under the UNFCCC. It set binding targets for industrialised countries to cut greenhouse gas emissions. Developing countries like India and China were exempt from binding targets. India ratified it in 2002.
Paris Agreement (2015): all countries, developed and developing, committed to limit global warming to well below 2 °C (aiming for 1.5 °C) above pre-industrial levels, through nationally determined contributions (each country sets its own targets) reviewed periodically. India set targets such as reducing emissions intensity and expanding renewable energy.
6. India's stand
India argues that the historical responsibility for emissions lies with developed countries; India's per capita emissions are among the lowest in the world.
It supports common but differentiated responsibilities and opposes binding obligations that would restrict its development.
India has taken many domestic steps: the National Auto-fuel Policy (cleaner fuels for vehicles), the Energy Conservation Act (2001), the Electricity Act (2003) (encouraging renewable energy), the National Action Plan on Climate Change (2008), and large-scale expansion of solar and wind power. It co-founded the International Solar Alliance (2015).
India supports SAARC and other forums for regional environmental cooperation.
7. Resource geopolitics
Resource geopolitics concerns who gets what, when, where and how, in relation to natural resources.
Oil: the global economy has depended heavily on oil; control over oil supplies, especially in West Asia, has driven conflict and the strategic policies of powerful countries.
Water: freshwater scarcity can cause conflicts within and between countries over shared rivers. Many international rivers are shared, and disputes arise over dams and water use. Agreements, such as the Indus Waters Treaty between India and Pakistan, show that cooperation is possible.
8. Indigenous peoples and their rights
Indigenous peoples are descendants of populations who inhabited a country's present territory when people of a different culture or ethnic origin arrived and overcame them. They often live according to their own traditions and customs.
They face displacement because of development projects (dams, mining), loss of land and threats to their culture and livelihoods.
They have organised internationally: the World Council of Indigenous Peoples was formed in 1975. In India, the term usually refers to Scheduled Tribes, who face displacement from development projects.
Their demands include recognition, rights over land and resources, and participation in decisions affecting them.
A reliable approach to questions
For the Earth Summit, give the year, place, outcomes and North–South divisions.
For the global commons, define them and match agreements to years.
For common but differentiated responsibilities, explain both sides' arguments and the principle.
For climate agreements, contrast Kyoto (binding targets for developed countries) and Paris (commitments by all).
For India, explain its stand and domestic actions.
Connections that matter
Security in the contemporary world treats environmental degradation as a security threat.
International organisations explains UNEP and the UN's role.
Economics: sustainable development gives the economic perspective on environment.
Common mistakes
Saying the Kyoto Protocol set binding targets for India. India was exempt as a developing country.
Placing the Earth Summit in Kyoto. It was held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992.
Defining the global commons as resources owned by one powerful country.
Confusing the Montreal Protocol (ozone) with the Kyoto Protocol (greenhouse gases).
Revision checklist
I can explain environmental concerns and the Earth Summit.
I can define sustainable development and the global commons.
I can explain common but differentiated responsibilities.
I can explain the UNFCCC, Kyoto and Paris.
I can explain India's stand, resource geopolitics and indigenous peoples' rights.