Big picture
South Asia includes India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, the Maldives and, in many discussions, Afghanistan. These countries share history, geography and culture, but their political paths have differed: some have struggled with military rule, others with monarchy or ethnic conflict. Relations between them, especially India and Pakistan, have often been tense.
This chapter surveys democracy in each country, the region's conflicts and agreements, and efforts at regional cooperation through SAARC.
Learning goals
Explain the experience of democracy and military rule in Pakistan.
Describe democracy in Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bhutan and the Maldives.
Explain Sri Lanka's ethnic conflict and India's role in it.
Explain India–Pakistan conflicts and agreements.
Describe India's relations with its other neighbours.
Explain SAARC and SAFTA and the role of outside powers.
Core ideas
1. Pakistan: democracy and military rule
After independence, Pakistan's first constitution was followed by military rule under General Ayub Khan (1958), who later got himself elected. Mass protests forced him out, and General Yahya Khan took over.
During Yahya Khan's rule, Pakistan faced the Bangladesh crisis, and after the 1971 war with India, East Pakistan became Bangladesh.
An elected government under Zulfikar Ali Bhutto ruled from 1971 to 1977, until it was removed by General Zia-ul-Haq. A pro-democracy movement followed his death (1988); elected governments under Benazir Bhutto and Nawaz Sharif alternated. In 1999, the army under General Pervez Musharraf took power again. Elected governments returned from 2008.
Why democracy has been unstable in Pakistan: the social dominance of the military, clergy and landowning aristocracy; Pakistan's conflict with India, which made pro-military groups more powerful; and the support that Western countries, particularly the USA, gave to military rulers during the Cold War and the war on terror for strategic reasons.
2. Bangladesh
Bangladesh was East Pakistan from 1947 to 1971. Its people resented the dominance of West Pakistan, the imposition of Urdu, and unfair treatment.
The Awami League, led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, won the 1970 elections, but the government refused to convene the assembly. Mujib was arrested, and the army cracked down on the people. Millions of refugees fled to India.
India supported the freedom struggle, leading to the 1971 war and the creation of Bangladesh.
Bangladesh adopted a secular, democratic constitution, but Mujib's government made the country a one-party state; he was assassinated in 1975. Military rule followed (Ziaur Rahman, H.M. Ershad). Democracy was restored in 1991, and elections have since been held, though with intense rivalry between the Awami League and the Bangladesh Nationalist Party.
3. Nepal
Nepal was a Hindu kingdom with an absolute monarchy for much of its history. A pro-democracy movement in 1990 forced the king to accept a constitutional monarchy with an elected parliament.
A Maoist insurgency from the mid-1990s fought against the monarchy and the ruling elite. In 2002, the king abolished parliament and took power.
In 2006, a massive pro-democracy movement forced the king to restore parliament. In 2008, Nepal abolished the monarchy and became a federal democratic republic. A new constitution was adopted in 2015.
4. Sri Lanka: ethnic conflict
Sri Lanka has been a democracy since independence in 1948. But it faced a serious ethnic conflict between the majority Sinhalese and the minority Tamils (some of Indian origin).
Sinhala nationalists argued that Sri Lanka should belong to the Sinhalese, and policies favoured Sinhala language and Buddhism. Tamils felt discriminated against.
From the 1980s, the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) fought for a separate Tamil state (Tamil Eelam) in the north and east.
India's role: in 1987, India and Sri Lanka signed an accord, and India sent the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF). It became entangled in fighting with the LTTE and was withdrawn in 1989 without achieving its aims; the operation was unpopular in both countries.
The Sri Lankan army defeated the LTTE in 2009, ending the civil war, though concerns about civilian deaths and Tamil rights remained.
Despite the conflict, Sri Lanka achieved good economic growth and high human development (literacy, life expectancy) for a developing country.
5. Bhutan and the Maldives
Bhutan was a monarchy; the king initiated a move towards constitutional monarchy with multi-party democracy, and the first parliamentary elections were held in 2008.
The Maldives was a sultanate until 1968, when it became a republic with a presidential system. Multi-party democracy was introduced in 2005; politics has seen tensions since.
6. India–Pakistan conflicts
Kashmir: the main dispute since partition. Wars over Kashmir in 1947–48 and 1965 didn't settle it; Pakistan claims Kashmir, while India regards it as an integral part.
1971 war: led to the creation of Bangladesh; followed by the Simla Agreement (1972), in which both agreed to settle disputes bilaterally and peacefully.
Kargil conflict (1999): India pushed back Pakistani forces that had occupied positions in Kargil.
Other issues: control of the Siachen glacier; the Sir Creek boundary; Pakistan's support to militant groups; terrorist attacks such as Mumbai 2008; and an arms race, with both testing nuclear weapons in 1998.
Cooperation: the Indus Waters Treaty (1960), brokered by the World Bank, has survived wars; bus services, trade and people-to-people contacts have been attempted at times; confidence-building measures exist.
7. India and its other neighbours
Country | Key aspects |
|---|---|
Bangladesh | Disputes over Ganga and Brahmaputra waters (Farakka), migration and border issues; cooperation through the Ganga Water Sharing Treaty (1996) and the Land Boundary Agreement (2015), which exchanged enclaves; strong trade and connectivity |
Nepal | An open border under the 1950 Treaty of Peace and Friendship; Nepalis can work in India; close cultural ties; occasional tensions over trade, China's influence and border issues |
Sri Lanka | Ties strained during the ethnic conflict and the IPKF; strong trade relations since (free trade agreement); India helped with reconstruction |
Bhutan | Very close relations; India supports Bhutan's development and hydroelectric projects |
Maldives | India helped foil a coup attempt through Operation Cactus (1988); cooperation in tourism, fishing and security |
8. SAARC and SAFTA
The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) was set up in 1985 in Dhaka, with seven members (India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, Maldives); Afghanistan joined in 2007.
Aim: to promote cooperation in economic, social and cultural development through mutual efforts.
The South Asian Free Trade Area (SAFTA) agreement was signed in 2004 and came into effect in 2006, aiming to reduce trade tariffs among members.
Limits: SAARC's progress has been slow because of political differences, especially India–Pakistan tensions; smaller countries fear India's dominance; and bilateral issues are kept out of SAARC.
9. Outside powers
China and the USA play important roles in South Asia. China has close ties with Pakistan and growing economic influence through investments and infrastructure. The USA has had strategic interests, especially during the Cold War and the war on terror, and seeks to manage India–Pakistan tensions.
A reliable approach to questions
For each country, trace the path of democracy with key dates and events.
For Sri Lanka, explain the roots of the ethnic conflict, the LTTE, the IPKF and the end of the war.
For India–Pakistan, list conflicts (wars, Kargil, Siachen, terrorism) and agreements (Indus Waters, Simla).
For SAARC, give founding year and place, members, SAFTA and limitations.
Connections that matter
India's external relations places these relationships in India's foreign policy.
Security in the contemporary world discusses traditional and non-traditional threats in the region.
Challenges of nation-building discusses partition and Kashmir from India's internal perspective.
Common mistakes
Saying Nepal is still a monarchy. It became a republic in 2008.
Saying the IPKF succeeded in ending the Sri Lankan conflict. It withdrew in 1989; the war ended in 2009.
Dating SAARC to 1967. SAARC was formed in 1985; ASEAN in 1967.
Saying the Indus Waters Treaty was broken by the wars. It has survived.
Revision checklist
I can explain democracy and military rule in Pakistan.
I can describe Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and the Maldives.
I can explain Sri Lanka's ethnic conflict and India's role.
I can explain India–Pakistan conflicts and agreements.
I can describe India's relations with neighbours, SAARC and SAFTA.