Big picture
At midnight on 15 August 1947, India became independent. Jawaharlal Nehru called it India's "tryst with destiny". But the new nation faced enormous challenges: the violence and displacement of partition, the integration of more than 500 princely states, and the demand to redraw state boundaries on the basis of language.
How India met these challenges shaped the kind of country it became: united, democratic and diverse.
Learning goals
Explain the three challenges India faced at independence.
Explain the process and consequences of partition.
Explain the integration of princely states, with examples.
Explain the reorganisation of states on a linguistic basis.
Core ideas
1. Three challenges
Unity and integrity: shaping a nation that was united yet accommodative of diversity in language, religion, region and culture. Many observers doubted whether a country so diverse could survive as one.
Democracy: developing democratic practices in accordance with the Constitution, which granted universal adult franchise and fundamental rights.
Development: ensuring the development and well-being of the entire society, especially the poor, rather than only some sections, guided by the Directive Principles.
2. Partition: process and problems
Partition followed the two-nation theory advanced by the Muslim League, which claimed that Hindus and Muslims were two separate nations and that Muslims needed a separate country.
Principle: areas with a Muslim majority would go to Pakistan. But this created problems:
There was no single belt of Muslim-majority areas: there were two, in the west and the east, so Pakistan was formed in two parts, West and East Pakistan, separated by Indian territory.
Not all Muslim-majority areas wanted Pakistan: Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, leader of the North-West Frontier Province (known as "Frontier Gandhi"), opposed the two-nation theory, but his province was merged with Pakistan.
Two Muslim-majority provinces of British India, Punjab and Bengal, had large non-Muslim populations, so they had to be divided by district or even village.
Minorities on both sides of the border were the biggest problem: Hindus and Sikhs in Pakistan and Muslims in India feared for their lives.
3. Consequences of partition
Violence: in the name of religion, people of one community killed and maimed people of the other. Cities such as Lahore, Amritsar and Kolkata were divided into "communal zones".
Displacement: about 80 lakh people migrated across the new border; estimates of deaths range from 5 to 10 lakh. Refugees had to be resettled.
Women suffered terribly: thousands were abducted, assaulted or forced to convert; many families killed their own women to "protect family honour".
Division of assets: financial assets, government employees, and even furniture and equipment were divided.
Psychological effects: a deep sense of loss and trauma lasted for generations. Gandhi worked for communal harmony and was assassinated on 30 January 1948.
India chose not to become a religious state: the government treated all citizens as equal regardless of religion, reaffirming secularism.
4. Integration of princely states
British India had about 565 princely states, ruled by princes under British paramountcy. At independence, paramountcy lapsed, and the princes were technically free to join India or Pakistan, or remain independent.
This threatened India's unity. Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, India's Deputy Prime Minister and Home Minister, with V.P. Menon, led the integration through persuasion and firmness.
The government's approach rested on three considerations: most people of the princely states wanted to join India; the government was flexible, offering autonomy to some regions; and, given partition, integration was essential for the country's security and unity.
Instrument of Accession: almost all states signed this document, agreeing to join India. Only a few, such as Junagadh, Hyderabad, Kashmir and Manipur, posed difficulties.
Hyderabad:
The Nizam of Hyderabad wanted independence. He signed a Standstill Agreement (November 1947) for a year.
A peasant movement in the Telangana region and the Nizam's paramilitary force, the Razakars, who attacked non-Muslims and anyone opposing the Nizam, created turmoil.
In September 1948, the Indian army moved in (Operation Polo), and Hyderabad was integrated into India.
Manipur:
The Maharaja Bodhachandra Singh signed the Instrument of Accession on the assurance that Manipur's internal autonomy would be maintained.
Under public pressure, he held elections in June 1948, under universal adult franchise, making Manipur the first part of India to hold elections this way; it became a constitutional monarchy.
In September 1949, the government pressured the Maharaja into signing a Merger Agreement, without consulting Manipur's elected assembly, which caused resentment that continues to shape politics.
Junagadh: its ruler wanted to join Pakistan, but the people resisted; after a plebiscite, Junagadh joined India.
Kashmir: discussed in the chapter on regional aspirations.
5. Reorganisation of states
During the national movement, the Congress (at its Nagpur session, 1920) recognised the need to organise provinces on a linguistic basis.
After independence, leaders hesitated, fearing that linguistic states might encourage separatism after partition.
Vishalandhra movement: Telugu speakers demanded a separate Andhra state. Potti Sriramulu, a Congress leader and Gandhian, went on an indefinite fast and died in December 1952 after 56 days. Massive protests followed, and in December 1952 the Prime Minister announced the formation of Andhra Pradesh (formed in 1953).
The States Reorganisation Commission was appointed in 1953 (chaired by Fazl Ali). It accepted that state boundaries should reflect the boundaries of different languages.
The States Reorganisation Act, 1956 created 14 states and 6 Union Territories.
Later changes:
Year | Change |
|---|---|
1960 | Bombay state split into Maharashtra and Gujarat |
1966 | Punjab divided into Punjab and Haryana; Himachal Pradesh got some areas |
1972 | Reorganisation of the north-east: Meghalaya, Manipur and Tripura became states; later Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh (1987) |
2000 | Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand and Jharkhand created |
2014 | Telangana created from Andhra Pradesh |
Significance: linguistic states helped make democracy more participative, as people could take part in their own language. Far from weakening unity, they strengthened it by accommodating diversity. Recognition of linguistic identity showed that diversity and unity could coexist.
A reliable approach to questions
Name the three challenges and explain each.
For partition, explain the problems in applying the Muslim-majority principle and the consequences.
For princely states, explain the government's approach and the cases of Hyderabad, Manipur and Junagadh.
For reorganisation, explain the Andhra movement, the Commission and the 1956 Act, with later changes.
Connections that matter
Framing the Constitution (History) explains the constitutional framework of the new nation.
Regional aspirations discusses Kashmir, Punjab and the north-east.
Era of one-party dominance describes politics in the early years.
Common mistakes
Saying Pakistan was formed as one connected territory. It had two parts, West and East Pakistan.
Saying Hyderabad joined through the Instrument of Accession in 1947. It was integrated after military action in September 1948.
Dating the States Reorganisation Act to 1953. The Commission was appointed in 1953; the Act was passed in 1956.
Saying linguistic states weakened Indian unity.
Revision checklist
I can explain the three challenges of nation building.
I can explain the problems and consequences of partition.
I can explain the integration of princely states with examples.
I can explain the linguistic reorganisation of states and later changes.