Big picture
India has about 2.45% of the world's land area, about 4% of its water resources, and about 17% of its population. Water is unevenly distributed across regions and seasons, much of it falls during a few monsoon months, and demand is rising rapidly for agriculture, industry and cities.
As a result, many regions face water scarcity, falling groundwater levels and polluted rivers. This chapter explains India's water resources, how water is used, the problems, and ways to conserve and manage water.
Learning goals
Describe India's surface water and groundwater resources.
Explain utilisable water and its use by sector.
Explain the demand for irrigation and groundwater over-exploitation.
Explain the deterioration of water quality.
Explain methods of water conservation and management.
Describe successful local efforts and the National Water Policy.
Core ideas
1. Water resources of India
Annual precipitation in India is about 4,000 cubic km.
India's total utilisable water is about 1,122 cubic km: about 690 cubic km of surface water and 432 cubic km of groundwater.
Surface water: rivers, lakes, ponds and tanks. About 1,869 cubic km of water flows in India's rivers, but only part of it (about 690 cubic km) can be used because of topographical, hydrological and other constraints. Rivers like the Ganga, Brahmaputra and Barak carry large volumes but much of their flow can't be harnessed. Rivers in the south (except the Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri) are less used.
Groundwater: water stored below the surface in aquifers, replenished by rainfall. Its use is very high in the north-western states (Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan) and in Tamil Nadu, while states like Chhattisgarh, Odisha and Kerala use only a small share of their potential.
Lagoons and backwaters: coastal states such as Kerala, Odisha and West Bengal have lagoons and lakes; the water is brackish but used for fishing and irrigating some crops (paddy and coconut).
2. Water demand and use
Agriculture uses the largest share of both surface water and groundwater (about 89% of surface water and 92% of groundwater use). The share of industry and domestic use is much smaller, but rising with urbanisation and industrialisation.
Demand for irrigation:
Irrigation is needed because of spatio-temporal variability in rainfall: some regions get little rain, and most rain falls in a few months.
High-yielding varieties need regular moisture; multiple cropping needs water in the dry season.
Irrigation has raised productivity, especially in Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh.
Groundwater over-exploitation:
In states like Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu, groundwater is being extracted faster than it is recharged, so water tables are falling.
In some areas, over-extraction has increased fluoride concentration (in Rajasthan and Maharashtra) and arsenic in groundwater (in West Bengal and Bihar).
3. Deterioration of water quality
Water quality means the purity of water free from unwanted substances. Water becomes polluted when foreign matter such as micro-organisms, chemicals, industrial waste and sewage is added, making it unfit for use.
Rivers like the Ganga and Yamuna are heavily polluted in stretches flowing through densely populated and industrial areas, by urban sewage, industrial effluents and agricultural runoff (fertilisers and pesticides).
Polluted water causes water-borne diseases, harms aquatic life and reduces the usable supply.
4. Water conservation and management
Prevention of pollution:
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 and the Environment Protection Act, 1986 aim to control pollution. The Central Pollution Control Board monitors water quality.
Programmes such as the Ganga Action Plan and later Namami Gange aim to clean rivers.
Effective implementation and public awareness are needed.
Recycling and reuse:
Using treated wastewater for industrial cooling, fire-fighting, gardening and flushing toilets reduces the demand for fresh water. At home, water used for bathing and washing can be reused for gardening.
Watershed management:
A watershed is an area drained by a stream and its tributaries. Watershed management means efficient management and conservation of surface and groundwater resources, through prevention of runoff, storage and recharge via percolation tanks and recharge wells, along with conserving and regenerating natural resources such as land, vegetation and animals, involving the community.
Rainwater harvesting:
Capturing rainwater from rooftops and open spaces and storing it in tanks or using it to recharge groundwater.
Benefits: increases water availability, checks the fall in groundwater level, improves water quality by diluting contaminants like fluoride and nitrates, prevents soil erosion and flooding, and reduces runoff that chokes drains.
Tamil Nadu made rooftop rainwater harvesting compulsory for all houses and buildings.
Traditional methods include tankas in Rajasthan, kuls in the western Himalayas and zings in Ladakh.
5. Successful local efforts
Initiative | Where | Features |
|---|---|---|
Haryali | Central government scheme | Watershed development project to enable rural people to conserve water for drinking, irrigation, fisheries and afforestation, through gram panchayats |
Neeru-Meeru ("water and you") | Andhra Pradesh | People's participation in building water-harvesting structures |
Arvary Pani Sansad | Alwar, Rajasthan | A "parliament" of villagers along the Arvari river that made rules for using water, after the community revived the river with johads (check dams) |
Ralegan Siddhi | Ahmednagar, Maharashtra | Under Anna Hazare, villagers built watershed structures, banned water-intensive crops and achieved prosperity |
6. National Water Policy
The National Water Policy (2002) set priorities for water allocation:
drinking water;
irrigation;
hydropower;
ecology;
agro-industries and non-agricultural industries;
navigation and other uses.
It emphasises integrated water resource planning, conservation, quality monitoring, and participation of users. The policy was revised in 2012, and campaigns such as Jal Shakti Abhiyan (2019) promote water conservation.
A reliable approach to questions
Give figures for utilisable surface water and groundwater.
Explain why agriculture uses the largest share and why irrigation is needed.
Name states with groundwater over-exploitation and contamination.
Explain each conservation method with an example.
Describe local success stories and the National Water Policy priorities.
Connections that matter
India: land resources and agriculture explains irrigation and farming.
Selected geographical issues and problems discusses water pollution.
Political Science: environment and natural resources discusses water conflicts.
Common mistakes
Saying industry uses most water in India. Agriculture uses by far the largest share.
Mixing up Arvary Pani Sansad (Alwar, Rajasthan) and Ralegan Siddhi (Maharashtra).
Placing irrigation above drinking water in the National Water Policy. Drinking water is the top priority.
Saying all river flow can be used. Only part of it is utilisable.
Revision checklist
I can describe India's surface water and groundwater resources.
I can explain water use, irrigation demand and groundwater over-exploitation.
I can explain water pollution and laws.
I can explain recycling, watershed management and rainwater harvesting.
I can describe local initiatives and the National Water Policy.