Big picture
India is the most populous country in the world. According to the Census of 2011 (the latest completed census), India had 121.02 crore people, about 17.5% of the world's population, living on only 2.4% of the world's land area. This huge population is a resource for development, but it is unevenly distributed and puts pressure on land, water and services.
This chapter explains how India's population is distributed, how it has grown, its composition and the patterns of migration.
Learning goals
Describe the size, distribution and density of India's population.
Explain the factors affecting population distribution.
Explain the four phases of population growth.
Describe population composition: rural–urban, language, religion, occupation, sex ratio and literacy.
Explain the importance of the adolescent population and population policies.
Explain migration streams, causes and consequences.
Core ideas
1. Size, distribution and density
Size (2011): 121.02 crore (about 1,210 million).
Most populous state: Uttar Pradesh (about 20 crore), followed by Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh. These five states held about half of India's population.
Least populous state: Sikkim; among Union Territories, Lakshadweep.
Density (2011): 382 persons per sq km. Bihar had the highest density (1,102), and Arunachal Pradesh the lowest (17).
Factors affecting distribution:
Physical: fertile plains (the Ganga plain) and coastal areas are densely populated; mountains (Himalayas), deserts (Thar) and dense forests are sparsely populated.
Socio-economic and historical: settled agriculture, irrigation, industrialisation, urbanisation and transport attract people; historical factors also play a role.
2. Growth of population
Population growth is the change in the number of people over a period. The decadal growth rate is the percentage change over ten years.
Phase | Period | Features |
|---|---|---|
Phase I: stagnant or stationary | 1901–1921 | Very low or even negative growth; high birth and death rates due to poor health care, famines and epidemics (such as the 1918 influenza) |
Phase II: steady growth | 1921–1951 | Death rate fell with better health and sanitation; birth rate remained high; 1921 is called the year of the great divide |
Phase III: population explosion | 1951–1981 | Rapid fall in death rate and high birth rate; development activities, better living conditions; growth rate peaked at about 2.2% per year |
Phase IV: high but declining growth | 1981–2011 | Growth rate began to decline because of falling birth rates, due to rising age at marriage, better education of women and family planning; still high in absolute numbers |
The decadal growth rate for 2001–2011 was 17.64%.
Regional variation: southern states such as Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Goa have low growth rates, while states like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan have higher growth.
3. Adolescent population and population policies
Adolescents (aged 10–19) form about a fifth of India's population. They are the future workforce but face challenges: early marriage, illiteracy (especially of girls), school dropout, malnutrition, high maternal mortality among teenage mothers, and risks of HIV/AIDS and substance abuse.
The National Population Policy, 2000 aims to address these issues, including education and reproductive health for adolescents. The National Youth Policy (2003, revised in 2014) focuses on youth empowerment, health, education and employment.
4. Population composition
Rural and urban: in 2011, about 68.8% of Indians lived in rural areas and 31.2% in urban areas. Urbanisation is higher in states like Goa, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu, and lower in states like Himachal Pradesh and Bihar.
Linguistic composition: India is linguistically diverse. The Constitution recognises 22 scheduled languages. Indian languages belong to four major language families:
Language family | Example languages | Regions |
|---|---|---|
Indo-European (Aryan) | Hindi, Bengali, Marathi, Gujarati, Punjabi | North, central and western India |
Dravidian | Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam | South India |
Austric | Santhali, Mundari | Central and eastern India |
Sino-Tibetan | Bodo, Manipuri, Naga languages | Himalayas and north-east |
Religious composition (2011):
Religion | Share of population |
|---|---|
Hindus | 79.8% |
Muslims | 14.2% |
Christians | 2.3% |
Sikhs | 1.7% |
Buddhists | 0.7% |
Jains | 0.4% |
Occupational composition: the Census classifies people as main workers (working at least 183 days a year), marginal workers (less than 183 days) and non-workers. The work participation rate (workers as a percentage of total population) was about 39.8% in 2011. Most workers are in the primary sector (cultivators and agricultural labourers), though the share is declining.
Sex ratio: the number of females per 1,000 males. In 2011, India's sex ratio was 943. Kerala had the highest sex ratio among states (1,084), while Haryana and some UTs had low ratios. A low sex ratio reflects discrimination against girls, including female foeticide.
Literacy: a person aged 7 or above who can read and write with understanding in any language is literate. In 2011, India's literacy rate was 74.04% (males 82.14%, females 65.46%). Kerala had the highest literacy rate (about 94%), and Bihar the lowest (about 61.8%). The gender gap in literacy remains significant.
5. Migration
Migration is the movement of people from one place to another. The Census records migration by place of birth (lifetime migrants) and place of last residence.
Streams of internal migration:
Stream | Features |
|---|---|
Rural to rural | The largest stream, dominated by women moving after marriage |
Rural to urban | Dominated by men moving for work and better opportunities |
Urban to urban | Movement between cities, for jobs and education |
Urban to rural | The smallest stream; return migration |
Causes:
Push factors: poverty, high population pressure on land, lack of basic amenities (health, education), natural disasters, local conflicts.
Pull factors: better job opportunities, higher wages, better facilities in cities.
Women migrate mainly because of marriage; men mainly for work and employment.
Consequences:
Type | Effects |
|---|---|
Economic | Remittances sent home by migrants support families and source regions (for example, Punjab, Kerala and Tamil Nadu receive large remittances); cities gain labour |
Demographic | Changes in age and sex composition: source regions have more women, children and elderly; destinations have more young working men |
Social | Migrants spread new ideas, technologies and practices; cultural mixing; but also loneliness, isolation and social stress |
Environmental | Overcrowding in cities, slums, pressure on infrastructure, pollution |
A reliable approach to questions
Quote 2011 Census figures accurately: population, density, sex ratio, literacy.
Name the states with the highest and lowest values.
Describe the four phases of growth with years and reasons.
For composition, use the language families, religious shares and occupational categories.
For migration, explain streams, causes by gender, and consequences.
Connections that matter
World population explains distribution, growth and demographic transition globally.
India: human settlements explains urbanisation.
Human development relates literacy and health to development.
Common mistakes
Saying Bihar has the lowest density. Bihar has the highest density; Arunachal Pradesh the lowest.
Giving the sex ratio as males per 1,000 females. It is females per 1,000 males.
Calling 1951–81 the stagnant phase. It was the population explosion phase; 1901–21 was stagnant.
Saying rural-to-urban migration is the largest stream. Rural-to-rural is the largest, mainly due to women's marriage migration.
Revision checklist
I can describe India's population size, distribution and density.
I can explain the four phases of growth and regional variation.
I can describe population composition, sex ratio and literacy.
I can explain the adolescent population and policies.
I can explain migration streams, causes and consequences.