Big picture
Minerals are natural substances of organic or inorganic origin with definite chemical and physical properties. They are the raw materials for industry and the source of most of our energy. India is rich in some minerals (iron ore, coal, bauxite, mica) and short of others (petroleum, copper).
Minerals are finite and non-renewable, unevenly distributed, and their quality and quantity are inversely related: good-quality minerals are found in smaller quantities. This chapter explains where India's minerals occur, the main energy resources, and why conservation matters.
Learning goals
Classify minerals and state their characteristics.
Describe India's three mineral belts.
Describe the distribution of iron ore, manganese, bauxite, copper and mica.
Explain conventional sources of energy and where they occur.
Explain non-conventional sources of energy.
Explain the need for and methods of conserving minerals.
Core ideas
1. Types and characteristics of minerals
Type | Sub-types and examples |
|---|---|
Metallic | Ferrous (containing iron): iron ore, manganese, chromite. Non-ferrous: bauxite, copper, lead, zinc, gold. Precious: gold, silver |
Non-metallic | Organic (fuel minerals from buried plants and animals): coal, petroleum. Inorganic: mica, limestone, graphite |
Characteristics: minerals are unevenly distributed; there is an inverse relationship between quality and quantity; and they are exhaustible, taking millions of years to form.
2. Mineral belts of India
Belt | Area | Minerals |
|---|---|---|
North-eastern Plateau Region | Chhotanagpur plateau (Jharkhand), Odisha plateau, West Bengal and parts of Chhattisgarh | The richest belt: iron ore, coal, manganese, bauxite, mica |
South-western Plateau Region | Karnataka, Goa, adjoining Tamil Nadu uplands and Kerala | Ferrous metals and bauxite; high-grade iron ore, manganese and limestone; monazite and thorium in Kerala's coastal sands; Neyveli lignite |
North-western Region | Aravallis in Rajasthan and part of Gujarat | Copper, zinc; building stones (sandstone, granite, marble); gypsum; petroleum in Gujarat |
The Himalayan belt has copper, lead, zinc, cobalt and tungsten, and Assam has petroleum. The offshore areas (Mumbai High) are rich in petroleum and natural gas.
3. Ferrous minerals
Iron ore:
India has large reserves of haematite and magnetite, the best types.
About 95% of reserves are in Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Goa, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
State | Major mines |
|---|---|
Odisha | Sundergarh, Mayurbhanj, Jhar (Gurumahisani, Sulaipet, Badampahar, Kiruburu, Bonai) |
Jharkhand | Noamundi, Gua (Poorbi and Pashchimi Singhbhum) |
Chhattisgarh | Bailadila (Dantewada), Dalli and Rajhara (Durg) |
Karnataka | Sandur-Hospet (Ballari), Kudremukh (Chikkamagaluru), Bababudan hills |
Goa | Exported through Marmagao port |
Manganese:
Used mainly for smelting iron ore and making ferro-alloys (steel needs about 10 kg of manganese per tonne).
Odisha is the leading producer (Bonai, Kendujhar, Sundergarh, Gangpur, Koraput, Kalahandi, Bolangir); also Karnataka, Maharashtra (Nagpur, Bhandara), Madhya Pradesh (Balaghat) and Telangana.
4. Non-ferrous minerals
Bauxite:
The ore of aluminium; found mainly in tertiary deposits associated with laterite rocks on plateaus.
Odisha is the largest producer: Kalahandi, Sambalpur, and the Panchpatmali deposits in Koraput. Other states: Jharkhand (Lohardaga), Gujarat, Chhattisgarh (Amarkantak plateau), Madhya Pradesh (Katni, Jabalpur, Balaghat), Maharashtra (Kolaba, Thane, Ratnagiri).
Copper:
Used in electrical cables, electronics and chemical industries; alloyed with gold for jewellery.
India is deficient in copper. Deposits are in Singhbhum (Jharkhand), Balaghat (Madhya Pradesh) and Jhunjhunu and Alwar (Rajasthan, including Khetri).
5. Non-metallic minerals
Mica:
Used in the electrical and electronic industries because of its insulating properties; it can be split into thin sheets that are tough and flexible.
Found in Jharkhand (Hazaribagh plateau, Koderma–Gaya–Hazaribagh belt), Andhra Pradesh (Nellore, which has the best quality) and Rajasthan (Jaipur to Bhilwara and around Udaipur).
Other non-metallic minerals: limestone (for cement and iron smelting), dolomite, gypsum, kyanite and sillimanite.
6. Conventional energy resources
Coal:
Type | Location | Notes |
|---|---|---|
Gondwana coal (about 200 million years old) | Damodar valley (Jharkhand and West Bengal): Jharia (largest coalfield), Raniganj, Bokaro, Giridih, Karanpura; also the Godavari, Mahanadi, Son and Wardha valleys | About 80% of India's coal; mainly bituminous; metallurgical (coking) coal |
Tertiary coal (about 55 million years old) | Meghalaya, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland | Younger; lower quality |
Lignite (brown coal) | Neyveli (Tamil Nadu), Gujarat, Rajasthan, Jammu and Kashmir | Low carbon content; used in thermal power |
Other important coalfields: Singrauli (Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh), Korba (Chhattisgarh), Talcher (Odisha), Singareni (Telangana), Chanda–Wardha and Kamptee (Maharashtra).
Petroleum:
Crude petroleum consists of hydrocarbons in liquid and gaseous states. It is found in anticlines and fault traps in sedimentary rocks of tertiary age.
Digboi in Assam (oil struck in the late nineteenth century; its refinery began working in 1901) is the oldest oil field. Mumbai High (offshore, from 1973) is the largest producer. Gujarat has Ankaleshwar, Kalol, Mehsana, Nawagam, Kosamba and Lunej. Assam also has Naharkatiya and Moran.
Refineries: field-based (such as Digboi) or market-based (such as Barauni). Jamnagar in Gujarat is a major refinery.
Natural gas:
Found with petroleum and alone. Major reserves along the east coast (Tamil Nadu, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh), Tripura, Rajasthan and offshore Gujarat and Maharashtra.
The Gas Authority of India Limited (GAIL) was set up in 1984 to transport and market natural gas.
Hydroelectricity: generated by fast-flowing water, a renewable resource. Projects include Bhakra Nangal, Damodar Valley, and the Kopili Hydel Project.
Nuclear energy:
Important minerals: uranium and thorium.
Uranium deposits occur in Singhbhum (Jharkhand, including Jaduguda), Udaipur, Alwar and Jhunjhunu (Rajasthan), Durg (Chhattisgarh) and others.
Thorium is obtained mainly from monazite and ilmenite in the beach sands of Kerala (Palakkad and Kollam), Visakhapatnam and the Mahanadi delta.
The Atomic Energy Commission (1948) and the Atomic Energy Institute at Trombay (1954, renamed the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre in 1967) were set up.
Nuclear power stations: Tarapur (Maharashtra, the first), Rawatbhata near Kota (Rajasthan), Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu), Narora (Uttar Pradesh), Kaiga (Karnataka), Kakrapar (Gujarat), Kudankulam (Tamil Nadu).
7. Non-conventional energy resources
Non-conventional sources are renewable, eco-friendly and more evenly distributed, though often costlier to set up.
Source | Features |
|---|---|
Solar energy | Photovoltaic cells convert sunlight into electricity; solar thermal technology is used for heating. Western India (Gujarat and Rajasthan) has high potential. Solar energy is 7% more effective than coal or oil-based plants and 10% more than nuclear plants |
Wind energy | Absolutely pollution-free and inexhaustible; kinetic energy of wind turns turbines. Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu have favourable conditions |
Tidal and wave energy | Large tidal waves along the west coast; potential in the Gulf of Khambhat and Gulf of Kachchh, but still under development |
Geothermal energy | Heat from the Earth's interior, reaching the surface through hot springs and geysers. India's first geothermal project was at Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh; potential also in the Puga valley (Ladakh) |
Bio-energy | Energy from biological products: agricultural residues, municipal, industrial and other wastes. It can be converted into electricity, heat or cooking gas, and also processes waste and garbage. Example: Okhla in Delhi |
8. Conservation of mineral resources
Minerals are non-renewable, so their wasteful use threatens future supplies.
Methods: use alternative energy sources (solar, wind, wave, geothermal); use substitutes for scarce metals; recycle scrap metals (copper, lead, zinc); reduce wastage in mining and processing; and develop sustainable practices.
Strategic and scarce minerals should be conserved and their exports reduced.
A reliable approach to questions
Classify minerals and state their characteristics.
Name the three mineral belts and their minerals.
For each mineral, give its use and two or three leading areas.
Distinguish Gondwana and tertiary coal; name major coalfields and oilfields.
Name nuclear minerals and power stations.
Explain non-conventional sources with locations, and conservation methods.
Connections that matter
Secondary activities explains why industries locate near minerals and energy.
Planning and sustainable development discusses resource conservation.
Physics: nuclei explains nuclear fission used in nuclear power.
Common mistakes
Calling bauxite a ferrous mineral. It is non-ferrous (aluminium ore).
Saying Gondwana coal is found in Meghalaya. Meghalaya has tertiary coal; Gondwana coal is in the Damodar valley.
Calling Mumbai High the oldest oilfield. Digboi is the oldest; Mumbai High is the largest producer.
Saying India has abundant copper. India is deficient in copper.
Revision checklist
I can classify minerals and state their characteristics.
I can describe India's three mineral belts.
I can locate the major ferrous and non-ferrous minerals and mica.
I can describe coal, petroleum, natural gas and nuclear resources.
I can explain non-conventional energy sources and conservation.